End of Life Issues: Do Not Resuscitate Order Essay

Do Not Resuscitate (DNR) order acts as an advance directive that prevents life saving interventions, specifically Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR), upon patient request. According to Morton, Hudak and Fontaine (2004), DNR orders are usually being administered to terminal patients with accompanying consent signed by the patient or representatives (if incompetent patients) (p. 95). Once the DNR order has been made and signed in a written document, the hospital policies may or may not conduct review within 24 to 72 hours. According to Morton, Hudak and Fontaine (2004), review is being done in order to prevent possible errors or inconsistencies with regards to the patient or representative’s condition (95). DNR order is usually requested by the surrogate/ patient who may or may not yet be in terminal stage of sickness, or being recommended by health care provider when no treatment is possible or the condition of the patient is irreversible. According to Orenstein and Stern (1997), DNR order violates various ethical principles, such as (1) beneficence or providing the utmost good for the patient, (2) violates the fundamental purpose of health care- to save lives, and (3) value of life and potential for survival (p. 363). The designed purpose of health care is to provide care, to initiate appropriate life-saving interventions, and to exhaust every possible resource or intervention that can save a person’s life (Fink, 2004 p. 230). Considering the actual mechanisms for attaining DNR orders, patient or surrogate can entirely request for this under their will and personal judgment; although, some institutions review this request, the right of the patient’s autonomy furthers the implementation of the order, which eventually violates the basic principle of health care (Lo, 2005 p. 121). Despite of the common usage of DNR order, problems exist within the application and implementation of this policy. These problems include (1) inappropriate decision making of most patients requesting DNR, (2) essentially limits the possibility of life saving interventions or further alleviations of the condition, (3) impairs the effectiveness and efficiency of surgical operations if required, (4) increased incidence of death among DNR patients regardless of death potentials, and (5) increased health costs due to longer hospital stays, palliative interventions and dying within hospital premises. Discussion Even without the confirmation of irreversible condition or actual evidence that no health care options exist, the patient is given the opportunity to impose DNR orders by request, which eventually becomes abusive in nature and essentially defies the purpose of health care (Orenstein and Stern, 1997 p. 363). To justify the first cited problem of DNR (i. e. problematic patient-decision making for DNR request), According to Watcher, Goldman and Hollander (2005), most patients who ultimately receive DNR orders are competent at the time of admission, but not competent (e. g. experiencing deficits in coherence, under confusion, experiencing severe pain, etc. ) when the DNR order is finally written (p. 123). In the study of Haidet, Hamel and Davis et al. (1998), even with physician or parental discussion of DNR end-of-life care, patients with colorectal cancer have based their decisions mainly on personal intuitions of suffering and pain without the consideration of potential life saving treatment of their condition (63%; n=212 of 339 respondents). From these statements, patients/ surrogate decision-makers most commonly base the decisions of their end-of-life care due to the pain and experienced suffering regardless of possible medical interventions available or stage of illness. For the second argument (limits the possibility of life saving interventions), according to the study of Beach and Morrison (2002), the presence of a DNR order affects the physicians’ initiatives and judgment on whether or not to request a variety of treatments not related to CPR. In the study, physicians absolutely agreed to initiate lesser interventions for patient’s with DNR order than patients who do not have (First test: 4. 2 vs. 5. 0, P =. 008; Second test: 6. 5 vs. 7. 1, P =. 004; Third Test: 5. 7 vs. 6. 2, P =. 037). In conjunction to the next argument (impairs the effectiveness and efficiency of surgical operations), DNR orders cultivates reluctance of physicians in providing surgical or invasive procedures. According to Watcher, Goldman and Hollander (2005), general anesthesia, conscious sedation and invasive strategies can greatly precipitate the need for formal resuscitation. If DNR order is present, surgical operation can be very difficult and risky considering the limitations placed on resuscitative interventions (p. 123). Considering such case, DNR patients who insist of acquiring surgery (e. g. surgical operations for bowel obstructions, pain relief, etc. ) are facing critically at-risked operations. Considering the fourth problem of DNR patients (increased incidence of death among DNR patients), in the study of Shepardson, Youngner and Speroff (1999) with the population size of 13,337 consecutive stroke admissions with 22% (n=2898) DNR patients in 30 hospitals between 1991 to 1994, unadjusted in-hospital mortality rates are higher in patients with DNR orders than in patients without orders (40% vs. 2%, P < 0. 001). Meanwhile, the results of the analysis with adjusted odds of death show 33. 9 (95% CI, 27. 4-42. 0). In conclusion, risk of death is evidently higher among those patients with DNR orders even after adjusting the odds of death. Evidently, DNR orders restrict potential life-saving interventions as well as palliative surgical procedures that can further alleviate the suffering and pain of the patient in the most appropriate means. As for the final argument of the paper (increased health costs of DNR patients compared to those without), according to the study of Maksoud, Jahnigen and Skibinsski (1993), patients dying under DNR orders greatly increase the health care costs due to (1) longer periods of hospital stay, (2) actual death within the hospital and (3) palliative measures being done to alleviate or at least minimize the pain and suffering of the patient throughout the process. According to the study, average charges for each patient who died were $61,215 with $10,631 for those admitted with a DNR order, and $73,055 for those who had a DNR order made in hospital (Maksoud, Jahnigen and Skibinsski, 1993). References Beach, M. C. , & Morrison, R. S. (2002, December). The effect of do-not-resuscitate orders on physician decision-making. Journal of American Geriatric Society, 50, 2057-2061. Fink, A. (2004). Evaluation Fundamentals: Insights Into the Outcomes, Effectiveness, and Quality of Health Programs. London, New York: SAGE Publishing. Haidet, P. , Hamel, M. B. , & Davis et al. , R. B. (1998, September). Outcomes, preferences for resuscitation, and physician-patient communication among patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. Journal of American Medicine, 105, 222-229. Maksoud, A. , Jahnigen, W. , & Skibinski , C. I. (1993, May). Do not resuscitate orders and the cost of death. Archives of Internal Medicine, 153, 1249-1253. Morton, P. , Hudak, C. M. , & Fontaine, D. (2004). Critical Care Nursing: A Holistic Approach. New York, U. S. A: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Orenstein, D. M. , & Stern, R. C. (1997). Treatment of the Hospitalized Cystic Fibrosis Patient. New York, U. S. A: Informa Health Care. Shepardson, L. B. , Youngner, S. J. , & Speroff, T. (1999, August). Increased Risk of Death in Patients With Do-Not-Resuscitate Orders. Journal of Medical Care Section, 37, 727-737. Wachter, R. M. , Goldman, L. , & Hollander, H. (2005). Hospital Medicine. New York, U. S. A: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Christian Worldview Essay

Worldview Part I What is a worldview? â€Å"A worldview, is a response of our heart or inner being; our intellect, emotion or will. It is the total framework we bring to decision-making† (Weider & Gutierrez, 2011, p.51). An example is the Christian worldview. The way we as Christians behave should be in direct correlation with the teachings of Jesus as to how we should live our lives. People who hold to the Christian worldview should act as if everything they do matters. Many Christians these days do not act in a consistent manner to what their worldview is (Keener). Part II The question of Origin, Genesis 1:1 (ESV Bible) shows God creating the heavens and the earth in the beginning. â€Å"God is the infinite, personal, sovereign and good being who created the universe† (Lefebvre, 2011). Isaiah 45:18 (ESV Bible) describes how God created the heavens and formed the earth and create it and intended it to be inhabitated. The question of Identity- Genesis 1:27(ESV Bible) God created man in His own image. Psalm 139:14(ESV Bible) I am fearfully and wonderfully made. It is because we are made in God’s image that sets us apart from all other aspects of creation. This identity with God bestows upon us great distinction. We have to understand as clearly as possible what it means to be created in the image and likeness of God (Naugle, 2010). The Question of Meaning/Purpose- We as Christians believe that our purpose is to do the will of God. John 15:16(ESV Bible) we are appointed to go and bear fruit. In Matthew 28:19(ESV Bible) we are commanded to go and make disciples. Through-out the Bible, God has charged us with being the salt of the earth and light of the world, He has commanded us to go and compel them to come so that his house may be filled. As we can see our main purpose is to live a life that exemplifies Christ and leads others to Him. The Question of Morality- Romans 5:12-14(ESV Bible) sin entered the world. Romans 3:23(ESV Bible) we all have sinned and fall short of the Glory of God. God is the ultimate standard of morality and because of the depravity of man we cannot live up to His standard, thus needing redemption through the blood of the Lamb, Jesus Christ. The Question of Destiny- it is clear throughout the Bible about our final destination. John  3:16-17, John 5:13-14 (ESV Bible) and many other verses in the Bible make it clear that if we do not put our faith and trust in God and accept the gift of salvation that we will not spend eternal life with Him but rather burn in the lake of fire. God also makes it clear that the gift of salvation cannot be earned Eph. 2:8-9. Part III A biblical worldview should influence the way you think about, treat, and speak to others on a daily basis because we should treat people how we would want to be treated, Matthew 7:12 (ESV Bible). If we are to believe that God created us in His likeness and He commands us to go out and make disciples for Him then we would have to also believe that we should think, treat and speak to others in a Christ like manner on a daily basis. To not do so would make us as Christians look hypocritical in the eyes of non-believers. †¦.treat/interact with the environment and non-human creation? In Genesis 1:26(ESV Bible) God commands us to have dominion over the earth and subdue it. This does not mean that we can ravage the land and kill all the creatures on it. We are to be stewards of what God has given us and that includes the earth and the creatures on it. References Keener, D. (n.d.). What is a worldview?. Retrieved from http://www.dkeener.com/keenstuff/wv.html Lefebvre, M. (2011, April 02). Worldviews-christian. Retrieved from http://warrantedbelief.wordpress.com/2011/04/02/worldviews-christianity/ Naugle, D. (2010, February 14). Developing a biblical worldview. Retrieved from http://www.colsoncenter.org/the-center/columns/indepth/14423-developing-a-biblical-worldview Tackett, D. (n.d.). What’s a christian worldview?. Retrieved from http://www.focusonthefamily.com/faith/christian_worldview/whats_a_christian_worldview.aspx Weider, L., & Gutierrez, B. (2011). Consider. Virginia Beach: Academic Publishing Services, Inc.

A Critical Exploration Of The Increasing Fragmentation Of Policing

But this trend should not come as a surprise considering that publicly funded agencies that grew during the 19th century did not really eradicate the involvement of the private sectors in policing (Ericson Kevin 1997). With the shift to private policing, investors in the security industries have seen their earnings steadily increase. This trend has stimulated a growing interest in contemporary international politics and has become the focus of widespread journalistic coverage. Some view the increasing fragmentation of policing as government’s failure to providing the most basic needs, security. As pointed out by Garland (2001), the pervasiveness of private firms is an indication of the impotence of governments in addressing the most basic demands. The increasing trend of outsourcing security tasks marks the state’s retreat towards a more coordinating role rather than a providing role As Button states: the increasing privatization of policing has eroded one of the founding myths of modern societies: ‘the myth that the sovereign state is capable of providing security, law and order, and crime control within its territorial boundaries’ (Button 2012, p.22). Whereas privatization of policing may indicated states’ failure in providing fundamental security services to its citizens, this is not necessarily true.. It does not necessarily mean that the state is dying but rather diversifying and developing. Several key questions arise when debating on this topic. Why the increase in fragmentation of policingwhat are the implications of such trends in terms of democratic legitimacy, effectiveness and equityIn the midst of the far-reaching transformation, how best can the multiplicity of institutional reforms involved in policing be governed? This paper addresses these questions with evidence drawn from various perspectivesfrom various perspectives. it The paper provides an adequate account for the shifting structures of security, providing an explanation for the increasing fragmentation and debating the extent to which it privatization of policing has occurred. In order to understand the trend towards private policing and the reasons for the increasing fragmentation, it is important to first explore the historical development. Since it is beyond the scope of this paper to examine the 1st world war and the 2nd world war more in depth, the paper will briefly touch on some of the important transformations. depth the post-conflict proliferation of the 1st and 2nd World Wars, it will briefly touch on some important developments that led to the rise of private security industry. Historical context The involvement of thee private secto in crime control and prevention can be traced back to the cold war. During the cold war, the private military sector provided services ranging from logistics to direct combat (Cusumano 2010). A prime example is the US firm Vinnel which was contracted to train Saudi Arabian National Guard in 1977. Other private security actors military sectors involved in military assistance during the cold war period include the British Watchguard, Gurkha Security Guards, KMS, Saladin and DSL(Cusumano 2010). Whilst the growing trend towards privatization of policing is not a new phenomenonIt is clear that th involvement in security tasks is not a new phenomenon and has been there since the cold war period. However the transformations that followed after the cold war triggered the tectonic change and lead to the increasing in fragmentation of policing. First, there was massive downsizing with most of the armies which created a market for military assistance (Lock 199). With the demise of the cold war, the losing parties saw their military personnel transfer to other theartres. Having lost in both wars, Germany became the major source of private proliferation. The transformation that took place with most of the armies increased the demand for external contractors. Th, Second, the strain on human resources and the increase in emphasis on specialization led to outsourcing of functions other than direct combat, such as foreign military training. This is evident with the planned gradual privatization of activities other than combat by the US Department of Defense in 2001 (Cusumano 2012). Neoliberal reforms Apart from transformations that took place during othe post-cold war period, this trend was further reinforced by the rise of neoliberals. The emergence of neo-liberal ideas that emphasized on the importance of fragmentation of power has played a key role in this trend. This perspective is in line with Focault’s concept of dispersion of power. Neoliberal ideas such as outsourcing, privatization and public private partnerships that were aimed at streamlining bereacracies played a key role towards this trend. The rise of neoliberalism during the late 1970s led to the Outsourcing, privatization and public private partnerships that were formed during the late 1970s to streamline bureaucracies resulted in the shift from the state-centered hierarchical structures towards the more diverse horizontal structures (Abrahamsen Williams 2009). Neoliberal reforms aimed at limiting the power of the state by finding means of rendering them accountable (Button2012). These new arrangements empowered private actors to increase their involvement in security provision. In this regard, he rein of power can be said to have been taken over by the private sector appears to have been taken over by private corporations. As emphasis was placed on conflict settlement that goes beyond the state, this led to the widening of police infrastructure to include private bodies. In many states, public policing underwent major neoliberal reforms. Hybrid public-private structures were developed across many countries driven by the neoliberal ideology. However, the idea of diminishing power of the state As the upsurge of private security companies has led to the expansion of the state rather than the ‘rolling back of the state’.The impact of this upsurge in private security has been the expansion of the state rather than ‘rolling back of the state’. The increase in fragmentation and privatization has extended the state apparatus of criminal justice and strengthened the institutional architecture of crime control rather than diminishing or reducing the powers of the state (Steden Sarre 2007). Privatization revolution The increasing fragmentation can also be said to have been driven by the ideological shift brought about by the ‘privatization revolution’. This is related to the emergence of ‘ mass private property’ where workplaces, leisure facilities, shopping malls and many other places are manned by private security guards. Whereas these places may be open to the public, in reality, they are private spaces. This seem to have has contributed to the growth of private security to the extent that private firms have mimicked nation states, a form of ( Button 2012). ‘Marketization’ or ‘commodification of policing The trend has further been reinforced by‘commodification’ of security which has resulted due to increased public demands that the police have not been able to satisfy. the involvement of the private sector in security provision has been seen as private is an appropriate means for dealing with the growing lawlessness and crimes. Rising cases of impunity across the globe have increased the demands for private security. Sierra leone is a prime example. Despite its small size, it is known globally a paradigm case of security privatization. The highly publicized activities of private security firms such as Sandline International and Executive Outcomes have made this small sized country globally recognized as the target of transnational security firms. Of course, this resulted due to the intense conflict in the country and presence of numerous rebel armies and civil defense militias. has conflict and the numerous rebel armies and civil defense militias in the country. The increasing demand for security across the globe has no doubt led to this momentous growth. Unrest and violence across various parts of the world including Syria, Kosovo, Iraq and Afghanistan have further strengthened the need to have these transnational security companies. Some of the well-known examples of these transnational firms are the Securitas Group and Group 4 securicor which have developed their operations in more than 100 countries (Musa Kayode 2000). Group 4 Securicor officers are currently providing protection to US troops in Kosovo. Minimize public costs Perhaps a most crucial factor that has played a central role towards this trend is the need to cut public costs. Given the rising cost of training and maintaining standing armies, many states have sought more cost effective ways of policing such as outsourcing security tasks to private sectors. (Krahmann 2002). Expertise of the private sector A more convincing argument for the proliferation of private security firms is related to expertise. The expansion can be attributed to the increasing emphasis on specialization of personnel. That is, the states have felt it necessary to outsource other security functions other than combat such as military training. It is a fact that success in military operations today is dependent on the state of the art technology. But most of the public military personnel do not have the necessary training for use of sophisticated technology. For example, the US relies on private military firms in using and maintaining sophisticated techology such as the Global Hawk unmanned aircrafts and the Predator (Tzifakis 2012). Private firms have an advantage in terms of their expertise especially given their practice of hiring regional expertise. ontrary to the above view, private security companies have come under immense criticism for their low standards of professionalism. Despite their high profile in forensic accountancy and expertise in several areas such as manning of aircrafts, the most dominant view has been that of an industry filled with corrupt, amoral, and incompetent employees (Steden Sarre 2007). This is evident with most of the studies conducted in North America which portray private security guards as poorly educated, marginally paid and hastily trained figures with dubious characters (Prenzer 2004, and livingstone Hart 2003) Risk-based thinking and global assemblages The increasing fragmentation of policing can also be said to have resulted due to risk based thinking and global assemblageswhere global security actors are integrated in the provision of security. Paradigm cases of global security assemblage can be seen in Nigeria and Siera leone. In Sierra Leone, private security firms have used their material resources including technical expertise to wield significant influences within global security assemblages. For example, in the case of Diamond minning by Koidu Holdings, PSCs especially Securicor Gray have used their capabilities and material resources to exert their influence onwield significant impact on the choice of security strategies (Abrahamsen Williams 2006). Similarly, global assemblages and risk based thinking appear to have contributed to the rise of private policing in Nigeria which is estimated to have between 1500 and 2000 private security companies (Keku Akingbade 2003). A good example of the global security assemblage in Nigeria is the contract between Group4Securicor and Chevron Nigeria Ltd (Abrahamsen Williams 2009). Through this contract, Group4Securicor replaced most of the local security companies that provided manned guarding together with the police. Whilst this private company was mandated to guard the CNL headquarters, the operational base in Escravos and the two logistical bases in Warri and Port Harcourt; it has used its material resources and legitimacy to expand its mandate beyond guarding these areas. Geographical fragmentation A further probable reason for the increasing fragmentation of policing is the geographical fragmentation. This has led to the shift from government to governance within the transatlantic community (Krahman 2002, p. 23). Two developments are linked to this geographical transformation: progressive replacement of nation state and shift towards regional and global governance; and a shift towards private security actors. The shift towards regional and global governance can be seen with the geographical expansion of the EU and the NATO (Abrahamsen Williams 2009). While the sideway shift to privatization of security functions can be seen with the proliferation of various private security firms. Growing awareness of importance of private sector in global governance Finally, the trend has been reinforced by the growing awareness of importance of the private sector in global governance. In fact, a with Global Compact Initiative has been established to create partnership between the UN and private sector on human rights issues. , Kofi-Annan, the former secretary to the UN, once contemplated the possibility of the using private security firms in peacekeeping missions both in the provision of logistics and military combat (Abrahamsen Willliams 2007). Today, we have many private agencies providing military assistance to the UN, Nato and even African Union peacekeeping missions. Whilst th idea of a private police established to achieve accountability of public police may sound realistic, there is little persuasive evidence regarding the effectiveness of the private institutions in performing this role. In fact, it is case that the private sector is largely unaccountable. In theory, it is stated that both the public and private police are accountable through the criminal law of their actions. However, there is no persuasive proof to support this claim in practice. Notorious examples can be seen with the recent events which Some of the recent infamous events that unfolded in California. This indicates indicatinghow how difficult it is to convict public police offenders (Stenning 1994). Fragmentation and privatization of policing a global phenomenon The trend towards private policing is clearly evident across the globe. For example, in Russia, there has been an explosive growth in private security personnel since the collapse of the Soviet Union. Whilst statistics indicate that Russia had almost 200,000 licensed private personnel in 1999, the the actual number is has been estimated to exceed 850,000 (Steden Sarre 2007). Similarly, A similar trend can be seen in Bulgaria which currently has about 130,000 personnel employed in private security sector in sharp contrast to 28,000 state police officers (Steden Sarre 2007). A similar trend can be seen with emerginerging economies of Asia. India has also echo the trend with over 5 million private security personnel, a figure that i exceeds the police, army, air force and the navy put together. In China, private guards are forecast to grow from the current 3 million to 5 million in the coming years. Not only is this trend evident in the Middle East and growing economies of Asia, but also across the US and the UK and in most Latin American countries. The US employs approximately 1.5 and 2 million private security personnel, outnumbering the public police by almost three to one (Abrahamsen Williams 2009). Similarly, the private security personnel in the UK outnumber the state police by a ratio of two to one. This growth is also reflected in the Latin American countries, African countries and even across Central and Eastern Europe. The resurgence is clearly evident across the world as countries such as Lithuania, Latvia, Slovenia and the Czech Republic continue to witness growth of private policing witnessing growth in this sector. Almost all countries now have their private security personnel exceeding the police number. A further trend that has been observed and has perhaps been under-theorized or under-evaluated is the increasing emergence of transnational policing. Besides privatization of policing, there has been an expansion in cooperation between member states in areas of policing (Button 2012). Traditional forms of cooperation based on distribution of information through bodies such as the International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol) have now been transcended by organizations such as the European Criminal Police Office (Europol) (Button 2012, p. 25). In addition, there has been an increase in information sharing and the exportation of ideas among private security firms. For example, corporations such as Corrections of America and Wakenhut exportation have exported their ideas to the UK and Australia (Steden Sarre 2007). However, in some countries, private policing is still at its infancy. For example,In n Greece, the ratio between the private and public security personnel remains relatively small. This can be attributed to the security market that barely existed in Greece until the late 1990s when legislation that mandated some of the key requirements for a licensed security firm was passed (Steden Sarre 2007). Other countries with a relatively low private security to police ratio include Italy, Portugal, Malta, Cyprus and Spain. Most of these countries still make more use of the police officers than private security guards. Nonetheless, the momentous growth of private policing is inevitable and is occurring across the globe. Concerns/controversies over private policing Traditionally, the state has been seen as a monopoly in crime prevention and control (Button 2012). However, evidence has emerged that have raised questions regarding the state’s monopoly in policing. Evidence have pointed to the increasing ‘pluralization’ or ‘fragmentation’ of policing as seen with the increasing involvement of the private sector and voluntary organizations in crime prevention and control. This raises key questions such as: does the state still have a monopoly in policing given the increasing fragmentationOr rather it can be questioned: did it ever have a monopoly given that the fragmentation in policing is not a new phenomenonThe only thing that is new is the increasing fragmentation and the expansion of private security. Whilst the pervasiveness of these private firms may signal the state’s failure in addressing the most basic demands for security, it should not be viewed as weakening of the state’s role. It does not necessarily mean that the state is dying but rather diversifying and developing. Encouraging private personnel to become more involved in crime control is to support the state’s activities by allowing these individuals to become auxiliaries of the state as opposed to becoming rivals (Sarre 2002). Of course, there are concerns with this trend of privatization of policing with the greatest dangers being the subversion of public interests into profit maximization. Another concern relates to the fact that privatization results in more unequal access to protection and security with differential treatment in the provision of security services to the rich and the poor (Stenning 1994). A further danger is that private policing may lead to the erosion of the cherished notions of liberty, human dignity and privacy which may eventually results in an intolerably controlled and regulated society It is clear that the state’s role is changing. The increasing fragmentation of policing is evidence of a new social world where governance is no longer monopolized by the states, but rather one in which the rein of power is taken over by the private sector. there is a dispersion of power more to the private sector. The hope of many is for governance to be controlled by the local communities. However, the reality is the emergence of a pervasive and intrusive corporate governance where in capital interests become the priority and are more pursued than that the interests of the local communities (Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2007). Further, there is the it is the possibility that the state might slowly wither away and that the proliferation of private security firms may pose threat to the state’s sovereignty. Other problems relate to issues such as the lack of transparency and accountability and political control over the operations of these private firms. The fundamental goal of outsourcing such service is obviously to protect the citizens from harm and against human rights violations. Whereas the outsourcing of security services to private firms is justifiable, it may be subject to violent manipulations. One variant to this manipulation can arise through coercion towards prospective clients by the private security firms with the aim manipulating them to buy into their services. Another maipulation can arise where these firms invite others to commit crime in order to increase demand for their protection. There is a possibility that the private security may also end up creating ‘security enclaves’ as their availability in the open market allows the wealthy and ruling elites to buy more of their services than the less-priviledged counterparts hence running counter to the social bonds considered essential to security (Karsent Volker 2000). In fact, the so called ‘security enclaves’ have emerged in the US. This is a clarion call to pay attention to isssues of accountability for attention to paid more on control and accountability especially given the increasing fragmentation and privatization. But, as argued by Les Johnston (1992), some of these concerns are not unique and do not constitute compelling arguments against private policing. For example, the concern over the subversion of public interests into profit maximization is not unique. This concern is also evident with the public police where corruption and political interests have led to public disservice. Criticism of erosion of state’s sovereignty might not necessarily be true as the private security sectors have often acted under the government’s control. For example, Siera Leone is far from entirely private as the government still plays a key role by integrating public forces and setting the legal framework. Future of private security market Nonetheless, there is a clear momentous growth of the private security sector. The massive growth is evidence of expansion of this type of market. In fact, the industry’s global turnover was maintained during the recessionary period indicating the high demand for this type of service across the globe. In 2007, the global security service market was valued at $136 billion and in 2009, it was estimated at $152 billion (Steden Sarre 2007). The future for private security firms seems promising given the increasing demand of security services driven by the rise upsurge in conflicts, war and human right violations across various sectors of the globe. The commercial private security market is currently estimated to be $165 billion and is forecast to grow at a rate of 18% per anum into the foreseeable future. Despite the recent decision made by the US DoD to reduce reliance on support service contractors to pre-9/11 levels, the global market for private security services is anticipated to continue to grow to reach $218.4 billon in 2015 (Tzifakis 2012). However, much of this growth would be mainly concentrated in the emerging economies. What was once a â€Å"quiet revolution† has grown in size and demand to become a global actor in in the provision of security services. Conclusion There is no doubt that the privatization of policing has become a reality. This is evident with the proliferation of private security actors across the globe with activities that range from manned guarding to surveillance and risk analysis to even military combat. The increasing fragmentation has clearly been triggered by several key developments: the emergence of neoliberal ideas; second the increasing commodification of security; third, the global assemblages and risk based thinking; fourth, the transformations that took place during the post-cold war period, and the fourth, emergence of the â€Å"privatization revolution†. lso, the increased emphasis on specialization of personnel, the geographical fragmentation and the increasing recognition of the role of private sector in global governance have no doubt played a significant role towards this trend. All these processes have been central to the growing fragmentation and globalization of private security. However, these changes have fueled controversies. On the one hand, it has helped secure the transition to democracy by providing for a stronger presence of security forces in states under threat of instability. On the other hand, it has had exclusionary effects by increasing the division between the rich and the poor which in the long-run can be detrimental to its legitimacy. Other concerns highlighted include the subversion of public interests into profit maximization; erosion of cherished notions of liberty, human dignity and privacy; and threat to state’s sovereignty. In the midst of these changes, states have a greater role to play. With development of more diverse forms of policing, governments have the central responsibility of coordinating and regulating all policing activities, both in the private and public agencies. Government must serve as a central anchor point ensuring multi-agency networking and efficacy, equity and accountability of all agencies, both private and public. Accountability can perhaps be achieved by bringing all the policing practices under the control of democratic institutions such as citizen boards, commissions and ‘watchdogs’ at the local, national, provincial and regional levels. This would ensure equity, efficacy, legitimacy and accountable of all security actors. Reference Abrahamsen, R. and Williams, M., 2009. Security beyond the state: global security assemblages in international politics. International Political Sociology, vol. 3, pp. 1-17 Abrahamsen, R. and Willliams, M.C., 2007. Securing the city: private security companies and non-state authority in global governance International Relations 21(2): 237–153 Abrahamsen, R and Michael C., 2006. Security Sector Reform: Bringing the Private In. Africa: Whither the African State. In: Private Security in Africa, edited by S. Gumedze. Pretoria:Institute of Security Studies, pp. 17–38 Adams, T.K., 1999. ‘The New Mercenaries and the Privatization of Conflict’, Parameters, Summer, pp.103-116. Ericson, R.V. and Kevin D. H., 1997. Policing the Risk Society. Toronto: University of Toronto Press Foucault, M., 1991. ‘Governmentality’, In: Burchell, G., Gordon., C and Miller, P. (eds) The foucault effect: studies in governmentality. Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Garland, D., 2001. The Culture of Control. Oxford: Oxford University Press Golsby, M., 1998. Police and private security working together in a co-operative approach to crime prevention and public safety. SRM Australia Pty Ltd Kamensy, J.M., and Thomas J. B., 2004. Collaboration: Using Networks and Partnerships. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Little?eld. Karsent, R. and Volker, S., (Eds.), 2000. Private Organizations in Global Politics. Keku, P. and Akingbade, T., 2003. Industrial Security in Nigeria. Lagos: Authorhouse. Krahmann, E., 2002. Private firms and the new security governance. USA, Cambridge University Press Livingstone, K. and Hart, J., 2003. The wrong arm of the lawPublic images of private security. Policing and Society, vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 159-170 Lock., P., 1999. Africa, military downsizing and the growth in the security industry., Issues in Science and Technology. London: Routledge. Manning, P.K., 2006. The United States of America. In Plural Policing. A Comparative Perspective,. London: Routledge, pp. 98–125. Musah, A. and Kayode, F., 2000. Mercenaries: An African Security Dilemma. London: Pluto. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S.J., 2007. Weak States and the Growth of the Private Security Sector in Con?ict, Security and Development 6(1): 1–23 Prenzler, T., 2004. The privatization of policing. In Sarre, R and Tomaino, J., (eds) Key issues in criminal justice. Adelaide: Australian Humanities Press, pp.267-296 Sarre, R., 2002. Private police: the future of policing and the broader regulatory framework. University of South Australia Steden, R. and Sarre, R., 2007. The growth of private security: trends in the European Union. Security Journal, vol. 20, pp. 222-235 Stenning, P., 1994. Private policing-some recent myths, developments and trends. {viewed on 14th December 2013} available from http://www.aic.gov.au/media_library/publications/proceedings/23/stenning.pdf A Critical Exploration Of The Increasing Fragmentation Of Policing But this trend should not come as a surprise considering that publicly funded agencies that grew during the 19th century did not really eradicate the involvement of the private sectors in policing (Ericson Kevin 1997). With the shift to private policing, investors in the security industries have seen their earnings steadily increase. This trend has stimulated a growing interest in contemporary international politics and has become the focus of widespread journalistic coverage. Some view the increasing fragmentation of policing as government’s failure to providing the most basic needs, security. As pointed out by Garland (2001), the pervasiveness of private firms is an indication of the impotence of governments in addressing the most basic demands. The increasing trend of outsourcing security tasks marks the state’s retreat towards a more coordinating role rather than a providing role As Button states: the increasing privatization of policing has eroded one of the founding myths of modern societies: ‘the myth that the sovereign state is capable of providing security, law and order, and crime control within its territorial boundaries’ (Button 2012, p.22). Whereas privatization of policing may indicated states’ failure in providing fundamental security services to its citizens, this is not necessarily true.. It does not necessarily mean that the state is dying but rather diversifying and developing. Several key questions arise when debating on this topic. Why the increase in fragmentation of policingwhat are the implications of such trends in terms of democratic legitimacy, effectiveness and equityIn the midst of the far-reaching transformation, how best can the multiplicity of institutional reforms involved in policing be governed? This paper addresses these questions with evidence drawn from various perspectivesfrom various perspectives. it The paper provides an adequate account for the shifting structures of security, providing an explanation for the increasing fragmentation and debating the extent to which it privatization of policing has occurred. In order to understand the trend towards private policing and the reasons for the increasing fragmentation, it is important to first explore the historical development. Since it is beyond the scope of this paper to examine the 1st world war and the 2nd world war more in depth, the paper will briefly touch on some of the important transformations. depth the post-conflict proliferation of the 1st and 2nd World Wars, it will briefly touch on some important developments that led to the rise of private security industry. Historical context The involvement of thee private secto in crime control and prevention can be traced back to the cold war. During the cold war, the private military sector provided services ranging from logistics to direct combat (Cusumano 2010). A prime example is the US firm Vinnel which was contracted to train Saudi Arabian National Guard in 1977. Other private security actors military sectors involved in military assistance during the cold war period include the British Watchguard, Gurkha Security Guards, KMS, Saladin and DSL(Cusumano 2010). Whilst the growing trend towards privatization of policing is not a new phenomenonIt is clear that th involvement in security tasks is not a new phenomenon and has been there since the cold war period. However the transformations that followed after the cold war triggered the tectonic change and lead to the increasing in fragmentation of policing. First, there was massive downsizing with most of the armies which created a market for military assistance (Lock 199). With the demise of the cold war, the losing parties saw their military personnel transfer to other theartres. Having lost in both wars, Germany became the major source of private proliferation. The transformation that took place with most of the armies increased the demand for external contractors. Th, Second, the strain on human resources and the increase in emphasis on specialization led to outsourcing of functions other than direct combat, such as foreign military training. This is evident with the planned gradual privatization of activities other than combat by the US Department of Defense in 2001 (Cusumano 2012). Neoliberal reforms Apart from transformations that took place during othe post-cold war period, this trend was further reinforced by the rise of neoliberals. The emergence of neo-liberal ideas that emphasized on the importance of fragmentation of power has played a key role in this trend. This perspective is in line with Focault’s concept of dispersion of power. Neoliberal ideas such as outsourcing, privatization and public private partnerships that were aimed at streamlining bereacracies played a key role towards this trend. The rise of neoliberalism during the late 1970s led to the Outsourcing, privatization and public private partnerships that were formed during the late 1970s to streamline bureaucracies resulted in the shift from the state-centered hierarchical structures towards the more diverse horizontal structures (Abrahamsen Williams 2009). Neoliberal reforms aimed at limiting the power of the state by finding means of rendering them accountable (Button2012). These new arrangements empowered private actors to increase their involvement in security provision. In this regard, he rein of power can be said to have been taken over by the private sector appears to have been taken over by private corporations. As emphasis was placed on conflict settlement that goes beyond the state, this led to the widening of police infrastructure to include private bodies. In many states, public policing underwent major neoliberal reforms. Hybrid public-private structures were developed across many countries driven by the neoliberal ideology. However, the idea of diminishing power of the state As the upsurge of private security companies has led to the expansion of the state rather than the ‘rolling back of the state’.The impact of this upsurge in private security has been the expansion of the state rather than ‘rolling back of the state’. The increase in fragmentation and privatization has extended the state apparatus of criminal justice and strengthened the institutional architecture of crime control rather than diminishing or reducing the powers of the state (Steden Sarre 2007). Privatization revolution The increasing fragmentation can also be said to have been driven by the ideological shift brought about by the ‘privatization revolution’. This is related to the emergence of ‘ mass private property’ where workplaces, leisure facilities, shopping malls and many other places are manned by private security guards. Whereas these places may be open to the public, in reality, they are private spaces. This seem to have has contributed to the growth of private security to the extent that private firms have mimicked nation states, a form of ( Button 2012). ‘Marketization’ or ‘commodification of policing The trend has further been reinforced by‘commodification’ of security which has resulted due to increased public demands that the police have not been able to satisfy. the involvement of the private sector in security provision has been seen as private is an appropriate means for dealing with the growing lawlessness and crimes. Rising cases of impunity across the globe have increased the demands for private security. Sierra leone is a prime example. Despite its small size, it is known globally a paradigm case of security privatization. The highly publicized activities of private security firms such as Sandline International and Executive Outcomes have made this small sized country globally recognized as the target of transnational security firms. Of course, this resulted due to the intense conflict in the country and presence of numerous rebel armies and civil defense militias. has conflict and the numerous rebel armies and civil defense militias in the country. The increasing demand for security across the globe has no doubt led to this momentous growth. Unrest and violence across various parts of the world including Syria, Kosovo, Iraq and Afghanistan have further strengthened the need to have these transnational security companies. Some of the well-known examples of these transnational firms are the Securitas Group and Group 4 securicor which have developed their operations in more than 100 countries (Musa Kayode 2000). Group 4 Securicor officers are currently providing protection to US troops in Kosovo. Minimize public costs Perhaps a most crucial factor that has played a central role towards this trend is the need to cut public costs. Given the rising cost of training and maintaining standing armies, many states have sought more cost effective ways of policing such as outsourcing security tasks to private sectors. (Krahmann 2002). Expertise of the private sector A more convincing argument for the proliferation of private security firms is related to expertise. The expansion can be attributed to the increasing emphasis on specialization of personnel. That is, the states have felt it necessary to outsource other security functions other than combat such as military training. It is a fact that success in military operations today is dependent on the state of the art technology. But most of the public military personnel do not have the necessary training for use of sophisticated technology. For example, the US relies on private military firms in using and maintaining sophisticated techology such as the Global Hawk unmanned aircrafts and the Predator (Tzifakis 2012). Private firms have an advantage in terms of their expertise especially given their practice of hiring regional expertise. ontrary to the above view, private security companies have come under immense criticism for their low standards of professionalism. Despite their high profile in forensic accountancy and expertise in several areas such as manning of aircrafts, the most dominant view has been that of an industry filled with corrupt, amoral, and incompetent employees (Steden Sarre 2007). This is evident with most of the studies conducted in North America which portray private security guards as poorly educated, marginally paid and hastily trained figures with dubious characters (Prenzer 2004, and livingstone Hart 2003) Risk-based thinking and global assemblages The increasing fragmentation of policing can also be said to have resulted due to risk based thinking and global assemblageswhere global security actors are integrated in the provision of security. Paradigm cases of global security assemblage can be seen in Nigeria and Siera leone. In Sierra Leone, private security firms have used their material resources including technical expertise to wield significant influences within global security assemblages. For example, in the case of Diamond minning by Koidu Holdings, PSCs especially Securicor Gray have used their capabilities and material resources to exert their influence onwield significant impact on the choice of security strategies (Abrahamsen Williams 2006). Similarly, global assemblages and risk based thinking appear to have contributed to the rise of private policing in Nigeria which is estimated to have between 1500 and 2000 private security companies (Keku Akingbade 2003). A good example of the global security assemblage in Nigeria is the contract between Group4Securicor and Chevron Nigeria Ltd (Abrahamsen Williams 2009). Through this contract, Group4Securicor replaced most of the local security companies that provided manned guarding together with the police. Whilst this private company was mandated to guard the CNL headquarters, the operational base in Escravos and the two logistical bases in Warri and Port Harcourt; it has used its material resources and legitimacy to expand its mandate beyond guarding these areas. Geographical fragmentation A further probable reason for the increasing fragmentation of policing is the geographical fragmentation. This has led to the shift from government to governance within the transatlantic community (Krahman 2002, p. 23). Two developments are linked to this geographical transformation: progressive replacement of nation state and shift towards regional and global governance; and a shift towards private security actors. The shift towards regional and global governance can be seen with the geographical expansion of the EU and the NATO (Abrahamsen Williams 2009). While the sideway shift to privatization of security functions can be seen with the proliferation of various private security firms. Growing awareness of importance of private sector in global governance Finally, the trend has been reinforced by the growing awareness of importance of the private sector in global governance. In fact, a with Global Compact Initiative has been established to create partnership between the UN and private sector on human rights issues. , Kofi-Annan, the former secretary to the UN, once contemplated the possibility of the using private security firms in peacekeeping missions both in the provision of logistics and military combat (Abrahamsen Willliams 2007). Today, we have many private agencies providing military assistance to the UN, Nato and even African Union peacekeeping missions. Whilst th idea of a private police established to achieve accountability of public police may sound realistic, there is little persuasive evidence regarding the effectiveness of the private institutions in performing this role. In fact, it is case that the private sector is largely unaccountable. In theory, it is stated that both the public and private police are accountable through the criminal law of their actions. However, there is no persuasive proof to support this claim in practice. Notorious examples can be seen with the recent events which Some of the recent infamous events that unfolded in California. This indicates indicatinghow how difficult it is to convict public police offenders (Stenning 1994). Fragmentation and privatization of policing a global phenomenon The trend towards private policing is clearly evident across the globe. For example, in Russia, there has been an explosive growth in private security personnel since the collapse of the Soviet Union. Whilst statistics indicate that Russia had almost 200,000 licensed private personnel in 1999, the the actual number is has been estimated to exceed 850,000 (Steden Sarre 2007). Similarly, A similar trend can be seen in Bulgaria which currently has about 130,000 personnel employed in private security sector in sharp contrast to 28,000 state police officers (Steden Sarre 2007). A similar trend can be seen with emerginerging economies of Asia. India has also echo the trend with over 5 million private security personnel, a figure that i exceeds the police, army, air force and the navy put together. In China, private guards are forecast to grow from the current 3 million to 5 million in the coming years. Not only is this trend evident in the Middle East and growing economies of Asia, but also across the US and the UK and in most Latin American countries. The US employs approximately 1.5 and 2 million private security personnel, outnumbering the public police by almost three to one (Abrahamsen Williams 2009). Similarly, the private security personnel in the UK outnumber the state police by a ratio of two to one. This growth is also reflected in the Latin American countries, African countries and even across Central and Eastern Europe. The resurgence is clearly evident across the world as countries such as Lithuania, Latvia, Slovenia and the Czech Republic continue to witness growth of private policing witnessing growth in this sector. Almost all countries now have their private security personnel exceeding the police number. A further trend that has been observed and has perhaps been under-theorized or under-evaluated is the increasing emergence of transnational policing. Besides privatization of policing, there has been an expansion in cooperation between member states in areas of policing (Button 2012). Traditional forms of cooperation based on distribution of information through bodies such as the International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol) have now been transcended by organizations such as the European Criminal Police Office (Europol) (Button 2012, p. 25). In addition, there has been an increase in information sharing and the exportation of ideas among private security firms. For example, corporations such as Corrections of America and Wakenhut exportation have exported their ideas to the UK and Australia (Steden Sarre 2007). However, in some countries, private policing is still at its infancy. For example,In n Greece, the ratio between the private and public security personnel remains relatively small. This can be attributed to the security market that barely existed in Greece until the late 1990s when legislation that mandated some of the key requirements for a licensed security firm was passed (Steden Sarre 2007). Other countries with a relatively low private security to police ratio include Italy, Portugal, Malta, Cyprus and Spain. Most of these countries still make more use of the police officers than private security guards. Nonetheless, the momentous growth of private policing is inevitable and is occurring across the globe. Concerns/controversies over private policing Traditionally, the state has been seen as a monopoly in crime prevention and control (Button 2012). However, evidence has emerged that have raised questions regarding the state’s monopoly in policing. Evidence have pointed to the increasing ‘pluralization’ or ‘fragmentation’ of policing as seen with the increasing involvement of the private sector and voluntary organizations in crime prevention and control. This raises key questions such as: does the state still have a monopoly in policing given the increasing fragmentationOr rather it can be questioned: did it ever have a monopoly given that the fragmentation in policing is not a new phenomenonThe only thing that is new is the increasing fragmentation and the expansion of private security. Whilst the pervasiveness of these private firms may signal the state’s failure in addressing the most basic demands for security, it should not be viewed as weakening of the state’s role. It does not necessarily mean that the state is dying but rather diversifying and developing. Encouraging private personnel to become more involved in crime control is to support the state’s activities by allowing these individuals to become auxiliaries of the state as opposed to becoming rivals (Sarre 2002). Of course, there are concerns with this trend of privatization of policing with the greatest dangers being the subversion of public interests into profit maximization. Another concern relates to the fact that privatization results in more unequal access to protection and security with differential treatment in the provision of security services to the rich and the poor (Stenning 1994). A further danger is that private policing may lead to the erosion of the cherished notions of liberty, human dignity and privacy which may eventually results in an intolerably controlled and regulated society It is clear that the state’s role is changing. The increasing fragmentation of policing is evidence of a new social world where governance is no longer monopolized by the states, but rather one in which the rein of power is taken over by the private sector. there is a dispersion of power more to the private sector. The hope of many is for governance to be controlled by the local communities. However, the reality is the emergence of a pervasive and intrusive corporate governance where in capital interests become the priority and are more pursued than that the interests of the local communities (Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2007). Further, there is the it is the possibility that the state might slowly wither away and that the proliferation of private security firms may pose threat to the state’s sovereignty. Other problems relate to issues such as the lack of transparency and accountability and political control over the operations of these private firms. The fundamental goal of outsourcing such service is obviously to protect the citizens from harm and against human rights violations. Whereas the outsourcing of security services to private firms is justifiable, it may be subject to violent manipulations. One variant to this manipulation can arise through coercion towards prospective clients by the private security firms with the aim manipulating them to buy into their services. Another maipulation can arise where these firms invite others to commit crime in order to increase demand for their protection. There is a possibility that the private security may also end up creating ‘security enclaves’ as their availability in the open market allows the wealthy and ruling elites to buy more of their services than the less-priviledged counterparts hence running counter to the social bonds considered essential to security (Karsent Volker 2000). In fact, the so called ‘security enclaves’ have emerged in the US. This is a clarion call to pay attention to isssues of accountability for attention to paid more on control and accountability especially given the increasing fragmentation and privatization. But, as argued by Les Johnston (1992), some of these concerns are not unique and do not constitute compelling arguments against private policing. For example, the concern over the subversion of public interests into profit maximization is not unique. This concern is also evident with the public police where corruption and political interests have led to public disservice. Criticism of erosion of state’s sovereignty might not necessarily be true as the private security sectors have often acted under the government’s control. For example, Siera Leone is far from entirely private as the government still plays a key role by integrating public forces and setting the legal framework. Future of private security market Nonetheless, there is a clear momentous growth of the private security sector. The massive growth is evidence of expansion of this type of market. In fact, the industry’s global turnover was maintained during the recessionary period indicating the high demand for this type of service across the globe. In 2007, the global security service market was valued at $136 billion and in 2009, it was estimated at $152 billion (Steden Sarre 2007). The future for private security firms seems promising given the increasing demand of security services driven by the rise upsurge in conflicts, war and human right violations across various sectors of the globe. The commercial private security market is currently estimated to be $165 billion and is forecast to grow at a rate of 18% per anum into the foreseeable future. Despite the recent decision made by the US DoD to reduce reliance on support service contractors to pre-9/11 levels, the global market for private security services is anticipated to continue to grow to reach $218.4 billon in 2015 (Tzifakis 2012). However, much of this growth would be mainly concentrated in the emerging economies. What was once a â€Å"quiet revolution† has grown in size and demand to become a global actor in in the provision of security services. Conclusion There is no doubt that the privatization of policing has become a reality. This is evident with the proliferation of private security actors across the globe with activities that range from manned guarding to surveillance and risk analysis to even military combat. The increasing fragmentation has clearly been triggered by several key developments: the emergence of neoliberal ideas; second the increasing commodification of security; third, the global assemblages and risk based thinking; fourth, the transformations that took place during the post-cold war period, and the fourth, emergence of the â€Å"privatization revolution†. lso, the increased emphasis on specialization of personnel, the geographical fragmentation and the increasing recognition of the role of private sector in global governance have no doubt played a significant role towards this trend. All these processes have been central to the growing fragmentation and globalization of private security. However, these changes have fueled controversies. On the one hand, it has helped secure the transition to democracy by providing for a stronger presence of security forces in states under threat of instability. On the other hand, it has had exclusionary effects by increasing the division between the rich and the poor which in the long-run can be detrimental to its legitimacy. Other concerns highlighted include the subversion of public interests into profit maximization; erosion of cherished notions of liberty, human dignity and privacy; and threat to state’s sovereignty. In the midst of these changes, states have a greater role to play. With development of more diverse forms of policing, governments have the central responsibility of coordinating and regulating all policing activities, both in the private and public agencies. Government must serve as a central anchor point ensuring multi-agency networking and efficacy, equity and accountability of all agencies, both private and public. Accountability can perhaps be achieved by bringing all the policing practices under the control of democratic institutions such as citizen boards, commissions and ‘watchdogs’ at the local, national, provincial and regional levels. This would ensure equity, efficacy, legitimacy and accountable of all security actors. Reference Abrahamsen, R. and Williams, M., 2009. Security beyond the state: global security assemblages in international politics. International Political Sociology, vol. 3, pp. 1-17 Abrahamsen, R. and Willliams, M.C., 2007. Securing the city: private security companies and non-state authority in global governance International Relations 21(2): 237–153 Abrahamsen, R and Michael C., 2006. Security Sector Reform: Bringing the Private In. Africa: Whither the African State. In: Private Security in Africa, edited by S. Gumedze. Pretoria:Institute of Security Studies, pp. 17–38 Adams, T.K., 1999. ‘The New Mercenaries and the Privatization of Conflict’, Parameters, Summer, pp.103-116. Ericson, R.V. and Kevin D. H., 1997. Policing the Risk Society. Toronto: University of Toronto Press Foucault, M., 1991. ‘Governmentality’, In: Burchell, G., Gordon., C and Miller, P. (eds) The foucault effect: studies in governmentality. Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Garland, D., 2001. The Culture of Control. Oxford: Oxford University Press Golsby, M., 1998. Police and private security working together in a co-operative approach to crime prevention and public safety. SRM Australia Pty Ltd Kamensy, J.M., and Thomas J. B., 2004. Collaboration: Using Networks and Partnerships. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Little?eld. Karsent, R. and Volker, S., (Eds.), 2000. Private Organizations in Global Politics. Keku, P. and Akingbade, T., 2003. Industrial Security in Nigeria. Lagos: Authorhouse. Krahmann, E., 2002. Private firms and the new security governance. USA, Cambridge University Press Livingstone, K. and Hart, J., 2003. The wrong arm of the lawPublic images of private security. Policing and Society, vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 159-170 Lock., P., 1999. Africa, military downsizing and the growth in the security industry., Issues in Science and Technology. London: Routledge. Manning, P.K., 2006. The United States of America. In Plural Policing. A Comparative Perspective,. London: Routledge, pp. 98–125. Musah, A. and Kayode, F., 2000. Mercenaries: An African Security Dilemma. London: Pluto. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S.J., 2007. Weak States and the Growth of the Private Security Sector in Con?ict, Security and Development 6(1): 1–23 Prenzler, T., 2004. The privatization of policing. In Sarre, R and Tomaino, J., (eds) Key issues in criminal justice. Adelaide: Australian Humanities Press, pp.267-296 Sarre, R., 2002. Private police: the future of policing and the broader regulatory framework. University of South Australia Steden, R. and Sarre, R., 2007. The growth of private security: trends in the European Union. Security Journal, vol. 20, pp. 222-235 Stenning, P., 1994. Private policing-some recent myths, developments and trends. {viewed on 14th December 2013} available from http://www.aic.gov.au/media_library/publications/proceedings/23/stenning.pdf

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Environmental Impact - Essay Example This paper illustrates that in making the judgments on the various broad impacts identified in the preceding section, it was considered that two major impacts – that on human beings and on the flora and fauna – were of equal importance: the first, because of their direct impact on humans at present, and the second, because of their protracted impact well into the future that will affect succeeding generations of humans and the ecology and biosphere of the broader environment. The significance criteria employed in the following discussions were adapted from the United Nations University EIA Significance Criteria. The subsequent explanation based on the criteria, the mitigation measures, and the residual impacts follow thereafter. a. Effects on human beings, buildings and man-made features Significance Criteria 1) Disturbance to human settlements 2) Adverse effects on safety 3) Adverse effects on human health 4) Loss of areas or environmental components that have cultural , recreational or aesthetic value; 5) Disturbance to economic activities 6) Increase in ambient and peak noise levels. Disturbance to human settlements Traffic is expected to increase significantly in five major areas, but there currently is a good amenity for the Gipsy Lane (180% increase in traffic) while Thurmaston Lane (105% increase) passes through the industrial environment. Sandhills Avenue, where traffic is expected to increase most (695% increase) has good amenity with adjoining free space which may later be factored in to accommodate the increase in traffic. For these three areas, and therefore the negative impact is not expected to be substantial.

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Media Meanings - Essay Example n.d.). Discourse or critical analysis is a non constructive reading and interpreting a problem or text. The goal of discourse analysis is to view the â€Å"problem† from a big stance and also to acquire an inclusive view of the â€Å"problem† and in relation to the â€Å"problem†.  Discourse analysis provides an awareness regarding the unseen motives in others and also it allows solving the actual problems, by not providing definite answers (Palmquist, n.d.). The clip of a morning talk show of GMTV, anchored by John Stapleton discussed and debated regarding the issue of Labour administration original under estimation in the number of jobs in UK that went to the expatriates’ over the last few years. Stapleton started with the issues, confusing, â€Å"The Migrant Job Fiasco† posted in the front page of â€Å"Daily Mail†. Similarly in case of The Sun 20, â€Å"Migrants Labours haven’t a Clue†. According to the sources, British people are not getting any job but about half of the jobs in the year 1997 have gone to the foreign workers. It is said that about 2.7 million jobs were created in the year 1997 and 800,000 jobs to migrants, but it was revised to 1.1millions migrant jobs and the statistics of the official was assumed to be more than 1.5 millions. According to Caroline Flint, MP and Labour Employment Minister, it was not a cover-up as about 100,000 foreign nationals came for new jobs in the year 1997, where found to be incorrect and revised the identified mistaken figures and about 1 million jobs which are upfront about. In 1.5 million, includes foreign nationals which also comprise those born and brought up abroad but are actually UK nationals. It is an important raising issue for people, and when it comes to the statistics, taking the same people of 1.5 million remains the same. Later, she also justifies by saying that the administration has the statistics by which they can estimates and introduce new schemes like

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Holocaust - Essay Example The functionality of a family relies on the efforts and contribution of all persons who constitute a given family unit. Clara’s family is no exception in terms of its setting and functionality. The interdependence between members of Clara’s family and other families in the Zolkiew community shows the extent to which families can go in order to remain together and united as one. Family ties were critical to account for during the Nazis occupation in Zolkiew, Poland. Family completeness is influenced by the manner in which family members relate. Clara and her family have close relationship that is characterized by love and care for one another. This factor enhanced the family’s unity during happy and sad times. Given the fact that the Nazis were against the Jews, Clara’s family was a close and direct target. Just like any other Jewish family at the time, Clara’s family was under significant threat. Amid this, the family ties between Clara, her mother, and her father remained close for the purpose of uniting the family. The presence of the Nazis in Zolkiew, Poland jeopardizes the family setting as a safe haven for the Jewish community. Family setups are broken while others are subjected to extreme livelihoods that they were not previously used to. In this respect, there is the aspect of ruined family ties in Clara’s memoir. In fact, she interacted with persons who were direct victims of such experiences. On the same note, the presence of the Nazis in their community could not offer anything short of these experiences. An aspect of help, assistance, and support is depicted by the manner in which Clara’s family relates with the Beck’s. In regard to this experience, it is evident that family ties do not only involve family members, but also friends and families within and without. Insights into the family context are based on strong ties that are established through good relations and

Paper 3- Journey, Pilgrimage or Quest (Nonfiction writing) Essay

Paper 3- Journey, Pilgrimage or Quest (Nonfiction writing) - Essay Example Rather, my life was led with a veil pulled over the jealousy and hatred that my cousins and their parents had for me. When my grandfather died. he had left a sizable inheritance to his family thanks to the property that he owned. His children collectively decided to sell the property in order to come into money which they could use for their future. I was fortunate enough to have been given a chunk of that inheritance by my parents. They had always been proud of my money handling skills since the time that I learned what my school allowance was all about and they knew that I would spend the money I inherited wisely and frugally. After the inheritance was divided equally, it appeared that I was the only one of the cousins who managed to get a cash share of my grandfather's estate. Needless to say, this was something that unbeknownst to me, my cousins held against me. It was this jealousy that ate away at their beings since the day that the inheritance was turned over to all parties co ncerned. The fact that we all still continued to live on the family compound, although with separate land titles already, made matters even worse. My parents had decided that it would be in everyone's best interest if the land that our house stood on was transferred to my name. After all, they were not getting any younger and I was becoming increasingly involved in the day to day affairs of my parents. Putting my name on the title was something that they believed to be logical, since I stood to inherit the property when the proper time came anyway. As word of my good fortune spread among my relatives, so did their envy and hatred towards the one they named â€Å"The Chosen One†, a monicker that I refused to accept because I was not chosen by anybody, I just proved to have a good head on my shoulders when compared to my other cousins. Other events that unfolded in our intertwined lives further fueled their anger at my seemingly good fortune. By that time I already knew that I could live with their jealousy. There was nothing I could do about that and, although the great divide now existed between my cousins, uncles, aunts, and my own family, my parents refused to leave the family home. Even though I begged them many times to simply sell the house and leave, they refused to do so. Telling me more than once that I would only be able to leave the place once they had both died already. They refused to be uprooted and moved to a strange, new place to live in. But all that changed one fateful afternoon. I had gotten into my car and headed out to attend to some errands for the day. Before I left, I saw my cousin's motorcycle parked alongside the sidewalk outside the family compound. I felt a tinge of fear at the sight of the motorbike. This male cousin of mine hated me the most of all the cousins who lived with us on the compound. He had done his best to physically harm me numerous times before. The first time, he tried to run me off the road with his SUV as I rode my bike to complete an errand at a nearby grocery store. We happened to share the same road space so he decided to unleash his road rage upon me. I was lucky enough to survive that brush with death. Suffering only a few bruises and scrapes since I was wearing a bike helmet at the time. I should have worn elbow and knee pads while I was at it! My street encounters with that cousin of mine culminated in the events of that

National Labor Relations Act Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

National Labor Relations Act - Essay Example For a while, the employees felt a sense of contentment with the recognition of their rights made through their unions only to be plunged ultimately by the assertion of the Taft-Hartley Act in 1947. The labor law is defined comprising mainly on the elements of law, and in its entirety deals on the state policies on labor and employment. It' constituents are composed of the persons, individuals, labor organizations, partnerships, corporations to name a few. On the one hand, an employer may be an agent directly or indirectly of any institution government or not that utilizes the labor force in it's earning capacity. Karl Marx would have blatantly the employer as: "the capitalist". Albeit a non-foolproof provision, the Act as a law considers it illegal for employers to exercise interference, restraint or coercion on a union's collective activity. The Act also prohibits domination and refusal of employers to bargain in good faith with union representatives. Illegality is also seen in cases where the employer retaliates for the filing of unfair-labor practices charge and the discrimination against employees who take part in union or any other collective activity. Threats from employers against union members fall under the category of union-busting along with coercion, disciplinary actions, suspen

Project management week5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Project management week5 - Essay Example Strategies specially tailored should be used by the manager. Technology contribution to project communication- different companies uses different communication in terms of technology. Technology should be chosen appropriately to effectively manage the project communication (Taylor, 2013, p. 27). Effective meetings- this is in terms of establishing rules, using communication models, media appropriation and relevant presentation methods. These are important factors for successful information of communication. Project audiences- the audiences for project meetings are the project team, the stakeholders, employees and vendors. The vendors are external audiences who are contacts of the team providing valuable information on merchandise prices. The project team is made of relevant people who are assigned to work on the project, obtaining necessary information from relevant sources like the management, employees, clients, shareholders who need the project to satisfy certain qualities for it to satisfy the essence of a good project. The management plays an important role in information flow between the project development team and the management itself, which communicates the important factors to be incorporated into the project plan. Project information-Approved information is the only thing that can be shared with the audiences. This information is inclusive of budget requests, project deliveries, change requests and relevant documents. Project status- this includes factors like completed milestones, summaries drafted, major accomplishments attributed to the project, current performances of the budget, that have been scheduled and any factors that pose risks. Project team- these are the individuals allocated to draft the project; they need to know every single detail pertaining to the project. They still have to be provided with procedures that direct them in the expenses, escalating issues and time off. They also need to

Urban poverty Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Urban poverty - Essay Example A detailed explanation of the reasons which resulted in formation of several neighborhoods around several cities of Britain is given by them. They have also explained on how the neighborhoods gradually turned out to be poverty ridden areas in the period 1981 to 1998. Some of their proposed solutions are detailed below. (Power & Houghton 2007) Several projects and ‘pilot’ plans were proposed by the government for the renewal of neighborhood and with their success, it has propelled several local authorities of each city to follow the same procedure. Power and Houghton (2007) suggest that the local authorities need to solve the immediate short term problems first than look at the long term problems. This is because, nationwide projects, generally tend to neglect these smaller problems but according to author’s view, they usually pose big threats to life in cities. The other common problem that is being reported by the author is the local crime incidents that happen in the cities that affect the day to day life of the residents. Any city that is clean and that follows the rules will flourish. So, the authors are of the opinion that police personnel are to envisage every doubtful street that could casus crime incidents and ensure strict adherence to rules and regulations by the residents. On the other hand, the author also warns that enforcing of rules by any kind of office personnel is a tough job and even more tough to consistently apply it. But, if applied, it would help the poor and people with low wage incomes to sustain their living. An example of such action was done in the late 1990’s in the city of Manchester. Reports suggest that it helped the city to greatly pull most of its so called waste lands back to business boundaries. The author concludes the analysis with this example to show that neighborhood management helps people t o be safer and to improve their way of living. (Power & Houghton 2007) The picture presented by

Compare and contrast the Lady of Shalott with In Westminster Abby Essay Example for Free

Compare and contrast the Lady of Shalott with In Westminster Abby Essay Consider * The context * The depiction of the women * Form * The poets use of language * Your response Both of the poems are about a woman. From the outset the two women appear very different, but when you study them more closely and we can begin to discover similarities. I think that both the woman in The Lady of Shalott and the women in West Minister Abbey are prisoners in some way or form. It is maybe more obvious in The Lady of Shalott where she is actually imprisoned inside a tower which is on an island and more than that she is also imprisoned by a curse which is upon her. The woman in Westminster Abbey is imprisoned by her lack of connection with reality and is so out of touch with the real world that I would say she is a prisoner within her self. The main difference between the two women is that one of them knows she is a prisoner and eventually in the end breaks away (even though it kills her) yet the other is blaitinly unaware. The tradition is which they are written is very different. The Lady of Shalott tells a story therefore it is a Narrative poem. In Westminster is about self-revelation so it is a dramatic monologue. The Lady of Shalott is set in the era of King Author and the Knights of the Round Table. The poem features Sir Lancelot (one of the greatest of the Knights) who is a key character. I think he symbolizes the male system that was very dominant back in the Victorian times. In short Lancelot represents to her all that she cant have and accepting death is better than being locked up. The poem is split into four parts, which build a kind of chapter formation. Part one gives us a bit of insight to what her surroundings are like and the fact she lives in a tower and that no one really knows very much about her. Down to towerd Camelot: And by the moon the reaper weary, Piling sheaves in uplands airy, Listening, whispers Tis the fairy Lady of Shalott. This quote from the poem (which is the last four lines of part 1) tells us that she is perceived almost like some kind of super natural being. In part two the lady of Shalott never stops working. She is weaving a picture of the things she sees reflected by a mirror so what she sees is 2-d and fickle. (Notice the contrast, her surroundings are drab yet her tapestry is colourful) A funeral, with plumes and lights and music, went to Camelot: Or when the moon was overhead, Came two young lovers lately wed The above statement connects the funeral with a wedding like both are equal and that love is equivalent to death. The lady then realizes that there is something unsubstantial about her life and proclaims Im half sick of shadows In Part three Lancelot appears and she sees his attractive reflection in the mirror, it appeals to her so much that she stops her work and looks out through the window at him. SHOCK the mirror breaks and the curse has come upon her. We can see how the lady almost becomes a mirror in herself with the glassy expression on her face. In this chapter the rhyming pattern changes when Lancelot appears, usually every verse ends with the word Shalott but one of the verses ends with Camelot instead. This is symbolic of how much devastation he actually causes, the whole form of the poem alters when he appears. In part four she wonders from the tower down to Camelot. And down the rivers dim expanse Like some bold seer in a trance, Seeing all his own mischance With a glassy countenance. These lines tell of the ladys trance like gaze possibly cause by thoughts of passion and desire (Lancelot). This could indicate that she is not responsible for her own actions. The changes of weather in the chapter indicate the change in mood. She comes down to Camelot and finds a boat that is her final resting-place. She does not kill her self, nor is she evil because her last song is said to be mournful and holy. All the people gather round her and in the crowd, totally oblivious to the fact he caused her death Lancelot proclaims that god has mercy on her as she has a lovely face. In Westminster Abbey is set during a war against Germany in the church in Westminster abbey. A woman is talking the whole time, which makes this, distinctly different from the last. In fact she is doing more than talking, she is praying. Once we discover that the audience is God we become very shocked by the things she is coming out with, especially when she says if he makes a mistake she will forgive him! She is being incredibly selfish and asking for special treatment i.e. that she should be protected more than anyone else. The woman is being greedy and praying for silly things like that her shares down go down and such like. In one of the verses she is talking about why England should win. There is great juxtaposition in the list that she gives placing things like democracy and class distinction together and then bringing in the fact they have proper drains, which just shows her snobbery. In other parts she is racist telling god to protect the blacks but to protect the whites more, which is saying that whites are more important just because they are more sophisticated and probably more civilized that the blacks she was talking about. The last verse gives us real insight into her character. She asks God for what she wants and expects to have her prayers answered in return for doing things she should have been doing any way. I.e. helping the war effort and going to church when ever she got the time. The poem ends with her having to leave for a social occasion- A now dear lord I cannot wait, Because I have a luncheon date She is a snob and she thinks God is one too, instead of praying to him in her local church she comes all the was to Westminster because she thinks God will view her prayer as more important. The end line of every verse deflates to what she has said (exposes the selfishness). The poet uses irony to show her up so you cant help laughing because you become almost astonished by the things that she says. The womans actions dont co-inside with her words and the language doesnt fit. This makes her seem like a walking contradiction. I think there is great contrast in both the context and styles of these poems but there still are similarities. They are both poems with a message; the message in The Lady of Shalott is that if you strive for more freedom you might end up dead. The message in the second poem is that we arent always aware of our faults etc. but they are always there.

Strategies for Cancer Treatment

Strategies for Cancer Treatment Cancer is one of the most severe health problems in the world. So the development of new anticancer drugs and new effective strategies to treat cancer is on the rise in drug discovery and clinical therapy. One of the major causes for morbidity and mortality is cancer, alone in 2008 there are approximately 12.7 million cases and 7.6 million deaths worldwide. A diagnosis of cancer goes as back as ca. 460 BC – ca. 370 BC, Hippocrates describes many different types of cancers and referred to them with the word carcinos, Greek word means crab. He gave this name because of the cut surfaces of a solid malignant tumour, showing stretched veins on all sides, similar in appearance of crab. A normal cell changes into a cancer cell due to cell mutation. Stimulatory and inhibitory systems in human body are responsible for controlling cell division. Cancer is monoclonal and for a normal cell to change its â€Å"phenotype† into a â€Å"neoplastic† cell, it has to undergo genetic mutation and these mutations will cause cancer. Carcinogenesis occurs in three stages: initiation, promotion and progression. Malignant transformation occurs at progression step and implies the ability to attack surrounding tissues to spread cancer. DNA damage is one of the main causes of cancer. It can arise from prolong exposure to exogenous agents. Cancer research has generated a rich and complex body of cognition, bring outing cancer to be a disease involving dynamic changes in the genome after a fourth part century of rapid advances. Two types of cancer genes has be outlined in the discovery of mutation, 1st that â€Å"oncogenes with dominant gain of function† and 2nd â€Å"tumor suppressor genes with recessive loss of function†. Both were identified through changes in human and animal cancer cells and by experimental models on the their cancer phenotypes. That tumorigenesis in human beings is a multistep process and that these staircase reflect genetic alterations that drive the progressive transformation of normal human cells into highly malignant derivatives. Cultured cells transform is a multistep process, it was observed that rodent cells show tumorigenic activity after being introduced to a minimum two genetic changes, whereas human cells are more complicate to transform. It has been established by transge nic models of tumorigenesis that tumorigenesis in mice process over multiple rate-limiting steps. In cancer cell genotype, malignant growth consist of six crucial modifications in cell physiology (Figure); self-sufficiency in growth signals, evasion of programmed cell death (apoptosis), insensitivity to growth-inhibitory (antigrowth) signals, limitless replicative potential, sustained angiogenesis and tissue invasion and metastasis. Tumor development goes through physiological changes to ensure the anticancer defence mechanism is successfully breached into cells and tissues. These six physiological changes are said to be shared in almost all types of human tumors. Microtubules are new and improved cytotoxic anticancer inhibitors, used in the treatment of different types of cancer. They can attack a cancer cell as a single agent or as combined regiments. â€Å"Microtubule-interacting agents† are of two types, one acts by inhibiting the transformation of tubulin heterodimer into microtubule polymers (â€Å"tubulin polymerisation inhibitors†) and other acts as stabilizing agent, it stabilizes the microtubule under normal destabilize conditions (â€Å"microtubule stabilizers†). Vincristine and Vinblastine agents are used for tubulin polymerization inhibitor. They were approved by FDA in 1963 and 1965. The 1st agent to use as microtubule-stabilizing agent was paclitaxel (or taxol) and was approved by FDA in 1992 and then semi-synthetic analog docetaxel in 1996. The use of microtubule-stabilizing agents as anticancer drugs has made a significant advance in cancer treatment. Taxol is a complex diterpene. Wall, Wani and co-workers were the first to isolate it from the bar of the pacific yew tree Taxus brevifolia Nutt in 1971. The compound showed excellent in vivo antitumor activity in nude mice experiment modelled as human tumour, which initiated the preclinical formulation and studies on Taxol toxicity in 1977 by NCI (National Cancer Institute). Susan Horwitz and co-workers were the 1st to identify the microtubule-stabilising properties of Taxol. They also identified the mechanism of action of taxol which stabilises the cellular microtubules is distinct from other compounds. Since 1995 many more natural products which share same properties as taxol i.e. depolymerisation of microtubules has been discovered. Cellular targets of microtubules-stabilizing agents consist of hollow filaments of ca.240 Ã… diameter, they are made of 55 kD proteins ÃŽ ±- and ÃŽ ²-tubulin as an important subunit. Cytoskeleton consists of actin polymers and intermediate filaments, however microtubules are one of the essential components and responsible for various cellular functions, such as maintenance of cell shape, its development and motility, intracellular transport of vesicles. Cellular microtubules are made of 13 protofliaments â€Å"(i.e. linear polymer with head-to-tail arrangement of ÃŽ ±- and ÃŽ ²-tubulin subunits)† There are possibilities structures with different protofilaments number, however only the structure with 13 protofilaments can align ÃŽ ±- and ÃŽ ²-tubulin parallel along with the axis of microtubules cylinder and this can cellular transport by motor proteins over a long distance. Microtubules has the ability to shorten and lengthen its length by adding or losing ÃŽ ±/ÃŽ ² tubulin from microtubule ends, and this known as â€Å"dynamic instability†. The dynamic properties of the microtubules are responsible for proper assembly of the mitotic spindle and the sister chromatids movement to the spindle poles. The spindle microtubules are 4-100 folds more dynamic as compare to the one’s forming interphase cytoskeleton. As mentioned above microtubule-interacting agents are of two types, one inhibits the microtubule polymerisation or destabilise the microtubules which already exists â€Å"(such as Vinca alkaloids or colchicines)† and other stabilise microtubules under destabilising conditions. Both types of agents would lead intense cell cycle arrest in mitosis at cellular level and would bring death that cell through apoptpsis. According to the research done by Horwitz and co-workers it is established that if a human cancer cell is treated with low concentration of microtubule-stabilising drugs, this will lead to abnormal mitosis formation, followed by the cell cycle arrest in G1 and eventually apoptosis will take place in arrested G1 state. However if high concentration of drug is used against human cancer cell, it will cause a prolong mitotic block and cells will exit without multiplying, as a result formation of tetraploid G1 cells will take place, which then leads to cell apoptosis. This can be established from the these results that it is a fundamental requirement for the cells to go through mitosis to achieve apoptosis by microtubule-stabilizing agents. For anticancer drugs, the cellular response to MSA’s can be modify due to changes occur in the cells and can lead to drug resistance or cell may be inherently acquired resistance against the effects of growth inhibitors due to the resistance protein. Drug efflux by ABC transporters such as the phosphoglycp-protein (P-gp), is one of the most often drug resistance observed in the cancer cells. Introduction of taxol was given above, now we will look at in more detail. Taxol showed excellent in vivo antitumor activity in nude mice experiment modelled as human tumour, which initiated the preclinical formulation and studies on Taxol toxicity in 1977 by NCI (National Cancer Institute). Susan Horwitz and co-workers were the 1st to identify the microtubule-stabilising properties of Taxol. They also identified the mechanism of action of taxol which stabilises the cellular microtubules is distinct from other compounds. Anticancer drugs from taxol are used widely to treat different types of cancer such as ovarian, breast and non-small cell lungs cancer. It can be used on its own, monotherapy or combined with cis-platin. Taxol has very low stability and formulation difficulties, however one of the major issue in it development is its low availability from natural sources.

Impact Of Sensory Marketing Marketing Essay

Impact Of Sensory Marketing Marketing Essay Existing research studies on sensory marketing efforts focus on the broad influence of sensory stimuli on consumer reactions to different brands. This research study narrows down the focus of sensory elements to olfactory and auditory stimuli and tries to analyze the effect of these stimuli on consumer emotions. Further the relationship between emotions generated out of these sensory stimuli and consumer purchase decision is being established. INTRODUCTION With ever increasing clutter in the advertising space as multiple brands vie for consumers attention simultaneously, capturing the consumers attention has become more challenging than ever for marketers today. Marketers realize the need for an alternative mechanism to capture consumer mind share in order to enhance brand awareness. Research shows that 99% of all marketing communication is based on what consumers see and hear. Scientific studies have proved that as human beings, 75% of our emotions are connected to what we smell rather than what we see and hear. Marketing in general seems to have neglected this very important sense, given the fact that branding is all about building emotional relationships between a product and the consumer. AN OVERVIEW OF THE SENSORY MARKETING APPROACH Marketers are finding new ways to build stronger connections to their customers and drive preference for their brands by employing scent, sound and material textures in immersive customer experiences. Sensory marketing is an emerging business discipline that applies analytical techniques to amalgamate the use of sensory stimuli such as scent, sound and texture in order to develop strong brands that are more memorable for customers than conventional visual branding techniques alone. Brands develop strong memories in consumers through content and communication cleverly packaged to appeal to our five senses. This results in stronger bonds between consumers and brands. The table below (a result of a survey by Brand sense) shows the importance of consumer emotions with respect to each of the five senses and the percentage marketing spend of Fortune 500 companies with respect to each of these senses. Figure 1: Perceived importance of senses versus marketing spend by Fortune 500 companies Sense % identifying each sense as very or somewhat important % spend against the senses by Fortune 500 companies Sight 58% 84% Sound 41% 12% Smell 45% 2% Touch 25% 1% Taste 31% 1% Source: Brand sense Sensory marketing applications Marketers from varied industries from automobile to food and leisure to entertainment have leveraged sensory branding in the last few years. One of the first movers to employ sensory branding is the Singapore Airlines, with its patented fragrance Stefan Floridian Waters, becoming its trademark and a standard company scent. The hot towels served to the customers perfume worn by flight attendants is standardized to this aroma to create an enthralling memorable in-flight experience. Cinemas have traditionally uses the aroma of popcorn to arouse the unique feeling of being in a movie hall. The breakfast cereal company, Kelloggs has patented a crunchy sound and feel of eating cornflakes that is unique in its own way. Mercedes-Benz had set up a division to work on the sound of its car doors to increase the perception of high quality among its consumers. Similarly many companies have tried to subtly exploit the impact of sensory perceptions in building their brands and ensuring better consumer loyalty. Purpose and scope of the study The purpose of this study would be to analyze at a basic level what impact sensory branding has on the purchase behaviour of consumers. Hulten, Bertin (2012) aims to depict shoppers touching behaviour in relation to the introduction of visual and olfactory sensory cues at point-of-purchase in a retail setting. The findings demonstrate that sensory cues exert a positive impact on consumers desire to touch.  Sensory cues frame consumers affective responses and decision making through involving the sense of touch. This study will aim to see to what extent and how multi-sensory marketing efforts have a positive impact on the consumer during his purchase decision making process. It would also look at cases of how marketers have leveraged sensory branding to positively influence consumer behaviour and present what are the key takeaways that marketers in particular can act on in order to increase brand awareness and induce trials. IMPACT OF SENSORY MARKETING ON PURCHASE BEHAVIOUR: EXISTING RESEARCH Academic research has shown that different sensory impressions impact consumer behaviour and perceptions of goods and services. The sense of sight is the most powerful one for discovering changes and differences in the environment and is the most common sense in perceiving goods or services. Impressions of sound have been analyzed empirically by Garlin and Owen (2006), Sweeney and Wyber (2002). The sense of sound is linked to emotions and feelings and the sense impacts brand experiences and interpretations. The sense of smell is related to pleasure and well-being and is closely connected to emotions and memories. The sense of taste is the most distinct emotional sense and often interacts with other senses. The sense of touch is the tactile one, related to information and feelings about a product through physical and psychological interactions. A multi-sensory brand-experience takes place when more than one of the five senses contributes to the perception of sensory experiences (Hulten, 2009). The author defines multi-sensory brand experience as follows: a multi-sensory brand-experience supports individual value creation and refers to how individuals react when a firm interacts, and supports their purchase and consumption processes through the involvement of the five human senses in generating customer value, experiences, and brand as image. Sensory marketing model Figure 2: A model for sensory marketing Sensorial strategies In relation to the five human senses Sensors Scent sensors Sound sensors Sight sensors Taste sensors Touch sensors Sensations Atmos-pheric Auditory Visual Gastro-nomic Tactile Sensory expressions The multi-sensory brand experience Customer equity Source: Hulten, Bertin (2009) A sensory marketing model takes its point of departure in the human mind and senses, where mental flows, processes and psychological reactions take place and result in a multi-sensory brand-experience. An individuals personal and subjective interpretation and understanding of a multi-sensory brand-experience is referred to here as experiential logic. This means that, for each individual, the logic contributes to forming behavioural, emotional, cognitive, sensory, or symbolic values. According to Bertin Hulten (2009), this consumer experience becomes an image, forming the mental conceptions and perceptions of interactions and inputs in the service process, which constitutes the final outcome of the multi-sensory experience within a brand perspective. This perspective is defined here as an individuals beliefs, feelings, thoughts, and opinions about a brand, based on the overall experience. Sensors aim at communicating sensations and sensory expressions that reinforce the multi-sensory brand experience for the customer. Sensations aim at expressing a brands identity and values as something distinctive and sensorial, in facilitating the multi-sensory brand experience. Influence of olfactory stimulation Hyojung Ho et al (2010) show that consumers understand the relation between specific product and smell by experiencing and learning. By this biological responses and the principle of classical conditioning that build through repetition, olfactory stimulation influences peoples attitude directly. And also, information from organ of smell can have an influence on peoples behaviour unconsciously by hypothalamus which controls an autonomic nerve and the endocrine system. The author shows that fragrance can create various kinds of positive emotion but the positive emotion cannot directly influence on willingness to buy in other product types. However, fragrance can be used for motivating to purchase. In addition, fragrance results in a wide variety of positive emotion on fashion goods. Fragrance can be used on marketing strategy as each products concept. Moreover, in the case of high technology product, satisfaction was the highest. And also, Consumers feel pleased and impressed from products with fragrance regardless of its product type. Auditory stimuli and consumer behaviour Park and Young (1986) examined the effect of music (present, absent) and three types of involvement (low involvement, cognitive involvement, affective involvement) on the formation of attitudes toward a brand in the context of TV commercials. Music increased the brand attitude for subjects in the low involvement condition but had a distracting effect for those in the cognitive involvement condition. Its effect for those in the affective involvement condition was not clear. They argue that music acted as a peripheral persuasion cue. The relationship between the fit of the mood induced music (happy or sad) and the purchase occasion (happy or sad) and its effect on purchase was studied by Alpert, Alpert, and Maltz (2005). While mood induced by music did not exhibit a main effect on purchase intentions, its interaction with fit was significant. The authors conclude that when music is used to evoke emotions congruent with the symbolic meaning of the product, the likelihood of purchase is increased. Haptics as a sensory marketing tool Terry and Childers (2003) show how haptic information influences emotions and consumer purchase behaviour. Haptic information, or information attained through touch by the hands, is important for the evaluation of products that vary in terms of material properties related to texture, hardness, temperature, and weight. The authors develop and propose a conceptual framework to illustrate that salience of haptic information differs significantly across products, consumers, and situations. The authors use two experiments to assess how these factors interact to impair or enhance the acquisition and use of haptic information. Barriers to touch, such as a retail display case, can inhibit the use of haptic information and consequently decrease confidence in product evaluations and increase the frustration level of consumers who are more motivated to touch products. In addition, written descriptions and visual depictions of products can partially enhance acquisition of certain types of touch information. The authors synthesize the results of these studies and discuss implications for the effect of haptic information for Internet and other non-store retailing as well as for traditional retailers. Analysis of literature with respect to impact on consumer behaviour The research studies analyze show that consumers are heavily using their senses in order to perceive the quality of the product and associate it with positive emotions. The perception of different marketing stimuli consists of emotional and cognitive processes, which take place within the consumer. According to the findings of these studies, sensory stimuli deriving mainly from the product and the packaging such as colors, modern style, pleasant smell, velvety texture and closure packaging sound, influence brand perception positively leading to a stronger (rational and emotional) bond between the brand and the consumer. Marketers need to pay attention, apart from the traditional means of the marketing mix (advertising, public relations, personal selling, sales promotion), to other very important sensory means, such as product scent and texture, store atmosphere (including store music), sounds deriving by their products. Sensory marketing is a relative new concept, which involves the creative synergy between marketing, psychology, neuroscience and neuropsychology. If marketers clearly understand this new concept and try to utilize the knowledge of similar to this study researches, then they can offer a unique buying experience to their consumers, significantly increasing the probability of selling their products. IMPACT OF SENSORY MARKETING ANALYSIS OF FACTORS INVOLVED Sensory marketing framework Sensory marketing is an application of the understanding of sensation and perception to the field of marketing -to consumer perception, cognition, emotion, learning, preference, choice, or evaluation. (Aradhna Krishna, 2011). A framework can be constructed which conceptually explains the process of sensory marketing: Figure 3: A conceptual framework of sensory marketing Sensory Perception Product Stimulus Emotion Behavior Attitude Learning Cognition Source: Krishna, Aradhana (2011) It is to be noted that sensation and perception are stages of processing involved in sensory marketing. Sensation happens when the stimulus has an impact on the receptor cells of a sensory organ-this part is neurological in nature. Perception is the awareness or understanding of sensory information. Analysis of sensory marketing variables Based on the framework above, its possible to identify the variables that can be used to study sensory marketing. Stimuli created through any one or any combination of the five senses (touch, auditory, olfactory, vision, taste) can be identified as the antecedent variables. Sensory stimuli Touch If the hedonic aspects of touch can increase persuasion, the use of touch in marketing may be more broadly applicable than previously believed (Joann Peck Jennifer Wiggins, 2006). It is widely believed that the role of touch is limited to providing information to the customer about the physical attributes of the product; however this kind of touch can be used effectively only in contexts in which customers are able to physically evaluate the product. But the use of touch as a hedonic tool has the potential to be applied to a broad set of products and even services and in a wide variety of contexts which include but are not limited to package design, print advertising, direct mail advertising, and point-of-purchase displays. Sensory stimuli Olfactory There have been studies which have dealt with the relationship between ambient scent and memory. Morrin and Ratneshwar (2003) showed that ambient scent increased recall and recognition of brands seen. Earlier studies on this topic also suggested that ambient odors result in memories and affect elaboration on product information and choice. According to Bosmans (2006), ambient scent can lead to emotion-based semantic connections with memories (e.g., roses and babies) and result in improving product evaluation. Stimuli auditory There have been various studies on the effect of auditory stimuli on marketing programs. A lot of marketing communication is auditory in nature for e.g. radio and television advertising messages, jingles and songs. There is also prevalence of ambient music in retail spaces, hotels, restaurants and airplanes. Also marketers create and deploy signature sounds for products for unique identification for their brand such as the sound for the Windows OS that one hears each time we boot a PC. Ismail M. El Sayed, Dalia A. Farrag, Russell W. Belk (2006) concluded that the type of background music played in malls had a distinct effect on the shopping behaviour of the visitors. They used the Stimulus-Organism-Response paradigm to ascertain the impact of auditory stimuli on purchase behaviour. Stimuli through vision and taste AydinoÄÅ ¸lu and Krishna (2011) demonstrate that size labels adopted by food vendors can have a major impact on consumers size judgments and consumption (actual and perceived), since consumers integrate the actual size information from the stimuli, with the semantic cue from the size label. The consequent variables identified are enhanced customer awareness about the brand, increase in brand recall, better brand recognition and customer purchase behavior whether the stimuli actually leads to the customer purchasing the product. Customer awareness As a result of stimuli through any of the senses, the awareness of a product/brand can be enhanced in the customers minds. Brand recognition (learning) Sensory stimuli is more often deployed by marketers in their products in order to ease the process of recognizing a brand for a customer. Auditory and visual stimuli in the form of packaging are more often used to enable a customer to recognize a brand with a higher level of ease and convenience. Brand recall (memory) Marketers also use sensory stimuli as a tool to facilitate a high level of brand recall among the customers. A typical example is that of the Intel Pentium processor sound or even the Britannias jingle in the Indian market. Purchase behavior Though sensory stimuli can help in awareness and recall, it is ultimately the conversion into a purchase that is the ultimate goal of marketers of any product. Barry J. Davies, Dion Kooijman and Philippa Ward (2003) show a model of how environmental stimuli in the form of ambient scent can affect the shopping behaviour of consumers in a retail set up. Figure 4: Model of the Influence of Ambient Scent on Consumer Responses Moderators Approach avoidance reactions Affective response Perceived ambient scent Objective ambient scent Source: Barry J. Davies, Dion Kooijman and Philippa Ward (2003) Variables for study The variables chosen for this study would be auditory and olfactory stimuli on the antecedent side and customer purchase behavior on the consequent side. Antecedents Consequences Kind of stimuli Vision Brand awareness Taste Brand recognition Purchase behavior Auditory Brand recall Olfactory The scope of research would be to identify how marketers have deployed the use of auditory and olfactory stimuli in products, services or environments (shopping malls, etc) to influence the customer purchase behavior. The study will also analyze the two major intermediate variables involved in the process perception of the stimuli and emotions and cognition happening at the customers mind. ANALYSIS OF IMPACT OF AUDITORY AND OLFACTORY STIMULI ON PURCHASE DECISION Research proposition This paper proposes that olfactory or auditory stimuli deployed by marketers in products or retail environments actually lead to positive emotions and cognitive reactions about the brand for the consumer. Further these cognitive and affective beliefs lead the consumer to the actual purchase decision. To analyze the validity of the above proposition, we examine the case in two different stages: Influence of olfactory and auditory stimuli in creating positive emotions/affective beliefs in consumers Influence of positive emotions on actual decision to purchase Relationship between olfactory stimuli and affective reactions in the consumer The sense of smell is considered to be the most closely related to emotional reactions. The olfactory bulb is directly connected to the limbic system in the brain, which is the system related to immediate emotion in humans (Wilkie 1995). 75% of emotions are generated by smell (Bell and Bell 2007). Consequently, smell represents a direct line to feelings of happiness and hunger and is a sensory bandwidth that cannot be turned off (Wilkie 1995; Vlahos 2007). Thus, from a marketers perspective, smell has an instantaneous good or bad effect on our emotional state which, as some research has shown, ultimately affects our shopping and spending behavior. Figure 5: How Objective Ambient Scents Interact with the Perceptual Process Organizing Assimilation Covert objective Objective Conscious level of awareness scent Sensing Attention Reacting Response Reacting Response Sensing Attention Ambient scent Organizing Assimilation Source: Bradford and Desrochers (2009) The neurological substrates of olfaction are especially geared for associative learning and emotional processing. Marketers can link a scent with an unconditioned stimulus eliciting the desired response and eventually prompting a conditioned response from consumers (Herz 2002). Further, since the olfactory bulbs are part of the limbic system and directly connect to the structures that process emotion (the amygdala) they also strongly related to associative learning (the hippocampus) (Herz 2002). No other sensory system has this type of intimate link between emotion and associative learning (Herz 2002). Relationship between auditory stimuli and affective reactions in the consumer Ambient sound, such as music heard in hotels, restaurants, retail stores, and supermarkets, can influence consumer mood, actual time spent in a location, perception of time spent, and actual spending. For instance, stereotypically French versus German music has been shown to affect the choice of wine-shoppers bought more French (German) wine when French (German) music was played (North, Hargreaves, McKendrick, 1999); classical music has been shown to enhance pleasure, whereas pop-style music to increase arousal (Kellaris Kent, 1993). Music in a store also influences shopping pace-slower music produces slower shopping and results in more purchases since customers progress at a slower pace as they move through the store (Milliman, 1982). When consumers enjoy the background music, they feel they have spent less time shopping relative to the actual amount of time they have spent in the store; if they dislike it, despite the short amount of time they have actually spent in the store, they claim to have been there for much longer (Yalch Spangenberg, 2000; but, see also Kellaris Kent, 1992). Influence of positive emotions on consumer purchase decision The relationship between pleasant emotions and purchasing behaviors is relatively well supported in the retail literature (Donovan and Rossiter, 1994). In particular, the Mehrabian-Russell model (1974), which explains the relationship between environments, intervening variables, and behaviors relevant to retail setting using a Stimulus-Organism-Response paradigm, has received the widest usage to explain shopping emotions in consumer research. According to the Mehrabian-Russell model, three emotional responses of pleasure-displeasure, arousal-non arousal, and dominance-submissiveness mediate peoples approach or avoidance reactions to environments. (Lee and Yi, 2008). APPLICATIONS OF OLFACTORY MARKETING TO STIMULATE PURCHASE Sensory analysis is a scientific discipline which is now employed by all the leading brands and also companies who are trying to enhance their brand identity. Because, Consumers perception is as good as reality (Lindstrom, Martin (2010):p106), added (non-edible) aromas prove to the scientists that buyer behaviour is absolutely influenced. Nestle, coca-cola, Carlsberg add aroma to the packaging on their products. Exposed, unwrapped foods are how leading supermarkets and shops entice their consumers, an example of this would be the in store environment at Wholefoods. More specific examples include; the Florida hospital which has a seaside centre in which they use scent machines to circulate the smell of sea, coconut and vanilla, with the notion that patients will be soothed and not cancel their appointments. (Hulten, Bertil, Niklas Broweus Marcus van Dijk, 2009) The Hyatt hotel chain in Paris used their French history of great perfumers and combined that with detailed sensory brand analysis to create their own signature scent. Their scent brand was developed by French perfumer Blaise Mautin for the Park Hyatt Vendome hotel in 2002 and it incorporated eighteen ingredients. It was ultimately described as fresh cement poured over raw oak plank, plus fresh, ever-so-slightly cinnamony pastry dough with the olfactory texture of thick, rich tan silk (Hulten, Bertil, Niklas Broweus Marcus van Dijk (2009):p64). Such detailed descriptions are there to serve our need for developed language around olfaction, due to the fact that our confidence and communic ation around scent is still developing. That said, olfactory memory is not semantic but episodic and customers only come into contact with the experience not the description. APPLICATIONS OF AUDITORY MARKETING TO STIMULATE PURCHASE Much of marketing communication is auditory in nature-one hears radio and television advertising messages, jingles and songs; one also hears ambient music in retail spaces, hotels, restaurants and airplanes; then, there are signature sounds from products such as the sound for the Intel Pentium chip that one hears each time one starts a computer or the sounds for Motorola or Verizon cellphones. Importantly, even when one reads a word, one hears the word as well-if the language is phonetic in nature, then the words that one reads enter a phontactic loop before being encoded in the mind, similar to spoken words. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH Conclusion The findings from the research point to the fact that there is a positive relationship between olfactory and auditory stimuli deployed by marketers in products or retail environments and the emotions that the customers go through in the purchase situation. Also the different studies analyzed show that positive emotions generated by sensory experiences lead to a higher probability of actual purchase decision by the customer. Thus, it can be concluded that sensory marketing efforts do have a direct impact on the purchase decision of the customers. Limitations and future research This research is only limited to analyzing the effect of sensory marketing efforts on consumer purchase behaviour. However there are other variables on which sensory stimuli could have different positive or negative effects on brand recognition (especially in the case of auditory stimuli used for sonic branding), brand recall (mostly achieved through rich visual stimuli) or just consumer perception of the brand. Future research can focus on the effect of each of the individual sensory stimuli independently on these different consequent variables. Also this research has largely focused on conscious sensory approaches to marketing. However this study can be extended to the increasingly prevalent subliminal approaches taken by marketers to reinforce the brands subconsciously in the minds of consumers.